Overview of Ancient Rome

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ORIGINS OF ROME|GOVERNMENT|AQUEDUCTS|BATHS|AMPHITHEATERS|GLADIATORS
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Origins of Rome
Rome was said to be founded in 753 BC by two twin boys named Romulus and Remus. These two boys were abandoned by their parents, but were said to be cared for and suckled by a she-wolf (archaeologists have discovered that life in Rome had actually begun in the 9th or 8th century BC as a series of small farmsteads on a group of hills overlooking the River Tiber). Romulus and Remus decided to establish a city on the Tiber River, but the brothers could not agree on a location. Signs from the heavens decreed that each brother would build a city, but Romulus’ city would be much larger. Romulus completed his city on April 21, 753 BC. Remus was upset that Romulus had built his city, so he climbed over the wall. The enraged Romulus killed his brother with an ax. The city came to be known as Rome, named for its legendary founder.

Roman Government
Although the Roman Empire had every type of government possible, the Roman state is usually described as a replublic (republica) and its consuls, or chief magistrates, continued to be appointed even after the establishment of one-man rule under the empire (though in its pure form it lasted only until the beginning of the first century B.C.). At the creation of the republic, supreme power probably resided with popular assembly, but early on the Senate became very influential, and the traditional formula, which survived for centuries, was S.P.Q.R. - Senatus Populusque Romanus - "the Roman Senate and People" acting together. Since the Ancient Romans did not want one man to make all of the laws, they decided to balance the power of the government between three branches, with first introducing the executive branch, then the legislative branch, and finally the judicial branch. This form of government would be the basis for most modern democracies.

However, early in the republic, all power was concentrated into the hands of the patricians, aristocratic, wealthy land holders. The republic oligarchy established consisted of two chief magistrates, known as consuls, who were elected annually. Since Rome was a highly hierarchial and class-conscious society, only those from the aristocratic class could be elected as a consul. However, there was the possibility of mobility between most classes (indicated in the diagram below by dotted lines) because by the second century B.C. class was no longer determined solely by birth. The classes described below superseded the old patrician/plebeian distinction, though certain elements of dress and religious positions and rituals were still reserved for patricians. There was a large gulf between the wealthy upper classes (the senatorial and equestrian classes, shown on the pediment of the temple above), and the poorer lower classes, though it was still possible—although quite difficult—to move upwards by acquiring sufficient wealth.
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Source: VRoma Project
Government Hierarchy: This leads to the government hierarchy and how social class determined many government positions. This diagram shows the ladder of political advancement (cursus honorum) during the late Republic. The straight ladder shows the typical path of advancement (theoretically open to all freeborn male citizens), beginning with election to quaestor, the lowest office, and proceeding to consul, the highest (of course very few men made it that far; it was quite exceptional when a man like Cicero, who did not come from a noble family, was elected consul). Red text designates “curule magistrates,” who had the right to sit on a special ivory folding stool (sella curulis) as a symbol of their office; they also had the right to wear the purple-bordered toga (toga praetexta). Offices marked with an asterisk carried imperium, the highest political authority, which included the right to command an army, to interpret and carry out the law, and to pass sentences of death. Magistrates whose title began with “pro” were in charge of provinces; the Senate normally conferred these after the men had finished their term of office in Rome. The more important provinces, especially those requiring large military forces, were assigned to ex-consuls, while the less significant provinces were governed by ex-praetors.

The cursus honorum was, of course, reserved for men; during the entire period of Roman history, women were prohibited from holding political office, though in the Empire their roles as mothers, wives, and daughters of emperors gave a few women very high social status and even a kind of indirect rank. Even elite women who were not members of the imperial family sometimes claimed the rank of their fathers or husbands (e.g., as consulares feminae, “consular women”).

Principles of Structure: These principles evolved under the impetus of the “conflict of orders,” a struggle between two social classes, the patricians and plebeians, that occurred primarily during the fifth and fourth centuries B.C.
  • system of checks and balances
    • collegiality—at least two in each magistracy
    • limited terms of political office (usually one-year term; eligible for election to higher office in 2-3 years. and for re-election to the same office in 10 years)
  • in theory was a participatory democracy, but in practice had oligarchic elements (primarily governed by an elite class) and representative elements (offices required popular election, and tribunes represented a plebeian constituency)
  • crucial role played by Senate, which was composed solely of ex-magistrates, was the only permanent governing body and the only body where debate was possible. The Senate controlled all finances, foreign affairs, and state administration and had by far the greatest social prestige.
Magistrates: 2 *consuls—chief magistrates who convened and presided over the Senate and assemblies, initiated and administered legislation, served as generals in military campaigns, and represented Rome in foreign affairs. Consuls could appoint and/or serve as *dictator for up to 6 months in times of emergency when the constitution was suspended. When their term of office was completed, consuls usually governed a province as *proconsul.

8 *praetors—served primarily as judges in law courts, but could convene the Senate and assemblies; they assumed administrative duties of consuls when these were absent from Rome. When their term of office was completed, praetors might govern a province as *propraetor.

2 censors—elected every 5 years for terms of 1½ years; revised lists of senators and equestrians; conducted census of citizens and property assessments for tax purposes; granted state contracts.

4 aediles—supervised public places, public games, and the grain supply in the city of Rome; 2 were required to be plebeians, and the other two (who had more status) could come from either order; the latter 2 were called curule aediles.

10 tribunes—had to be plebeian, because the office was established to protect the plebeians from arbitrary actions of magistrates. Hence the primary power of tribunes was negative; they could veto the act of any magistrate and stop any official act of administration. They were by law sacrosanct, meaning that anyone who attacked them physically could be immediately and summarily killed; they could convene the Senate and assemblies and initiate legislation.

20 quaestors—administered finances of state treasury and served in various capacities in the provinces; when elected quaestor, a man automatically became eligible for membership in the Senate, though censors had to appoint him to fill a vacancy
Source: VRoma Project
Roman Aqueducts
Aqueducts are man-made conduits for carrying water. The word itself comes from the Latin aqua ("water") and ducere ("to lead"). The elaborate  aqueduct system that served the capital of the Roman Empire remains a major engineering achievement. Over a period of 500 years--from 312 BC to AD 226--11 aqueducts were built to bring water to Rome from as far away as 57 miles (92 kilometers) and provided the Roman people with 38 million gallons of water every day. Some of these aqueducts are still in use today. However, contrary to popular belief, only a portion of Rome's aqueduct system actually crossed over valleys on stone arches (30 miles out of a total of about 260 miles); the rest consisted of underground conduits made mostly of stone and terra cotta pipe but also of wood, leather, lead, and bronze. Water flowed to the city by the force of gravity alone and usually went through a series of distribution tanks within the city.

One of the most remarkable aqueducts was the Claudian aqueduct, which was completed by the emperor Claudius although started by Caligula. They featured high arches and "beautiful and stately" pillars. The first invention of aqueducts, is attributed to Appius Claudius, four hundred forty-one years from the foundation of the city of Rome, who brought water into
the city, by a channel of eleven miles in length—but afterwards several others of greater magnitude were built: several of them were cut through the mountains, and all other impediments for about forty miles together, and of such a height that a man on horseback might ride through them without the least difficulty. But this is meant only of the constant course of the channel, for the vaults and arches were in some places one hundred and nine feet high. It is said that Rome was supplied with five hundred thousand barrels every twenty-four hours by means of these Ancient Roman aqueducts. The cloacae or sewers were constructed by undermining and cutting through the seven hills upon which Rome stood (to read more about the Seven Hills of Rome click here). The Cloaca Maxima was the main sewerage system of Ancient Rome. Generally water was not stored, and the excess was used to flush out sewers. Rome's famous fountains and public lavatories were also supplied in this way. Emperor Vespasian was responsible for the introduction of these lavatories throughout the city. This was not only aimed at hygiene but also at improving state finances as he introduced fines for soiling, as well as charging for use of the toilets. The public toilets were built as a large room with a number of toilet seats, with holes, built into the walls. A continuous stream of water ran under the seats to the sewers. Users of the toilets could then wash at a fountain situated in the same room - just like a modern public toilet (except for the lack of privacy)! To see an interactive map of "the Waters of Rome" click here

As central authority fell apart in the 4th and 5th centuries, however, the systems also deteriorated from the final destruction in Rome which occurred in 537 AD during a siege on Rome by the Goths. The aqueducts which supplied Rome with water were destroyed. The people of Rome could not survive without water and the population of Rome fell by 90%. For most of the Middle Ages aqueducts were not used in western Europe, and people returned to getting their water from wells and local rivers.
Roman Baths
The Romans, in the earlier periods of their history, used the bath but seldom, and only for health and cleanliness, not as a luxury. The ancient Romans washed their legs and arms daily, and bathed their whole body once a week. In addition, the earlier ages of Roman history boasted a much greater delicacy with respect to bathing. However, virtue passed away as wealth increased; and when the thermae (large public bathhouses) came into use, bathing became the most important activity for the greatest number of Romans, since it was part of the daily regimen for men of all classes, and many women as well. Not only did the men bathe together in numbers, but even men and women stripped and bathed promiscuously in the same bath. It is true, however, that the public establishments often contained separate baths for both sexes adjoining to each other as will be seen to have been the case at the baths of Pompeii (Smith's Dictionaries). Apart from their normal hygienic functions, the public baths provided facilities for sports and recreation. Their public nature created the proper environment—much like a city club or community center—for social intercourse varying from neighborhood gossip to business discussions. There was even a cultural and intellectual side to the baths since the truly grand establishments, the thermae, incorporated libraries, lecture halls, colonnades, and promenades and assumed a character like the Greek gymnasium (VRoma.org).

Upon entering the baths, individuals went first to the dressing room (apodyterium), where there were niches and cabinets to store their street clothes and shoes. Many bathers were accompanied by one or more slaves to carry their gear and guard their clothes in the dressing rooms, but the bathhouses provided attendants who would watch over the belongings of the poorest for a fee. Sometimes the dressing room did double duty; for example, in the Stabian Baths in Pompeii the women's dressing room also served as a frigidarium, a cold-water pool. Although the evidence is not clear about exactly what Romans wore when bathing, it seems probable that they did not exercise in the nude (as Greek males did) and may also have worn some light covering in the baths—perhaps a subligaculum. Within the baths special sandals with thick soles were needed to protect the feet from the heated floors (this "hot" section is usually refered to as the caldarium; the warm sections were known as the tepidarium).

Below is the simplified floor plan of the Baths of Caracalla (completed in AD 217), in Rome. This is a great example at seeing an average public bath, though many were much bigger. The Baths of Caracalla were in use for 300 years until the invading Goths destroyed the plumbing.
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Source: Falcophiles.co.uk
Roman Amphitheaters
Gladiatorial contests, like chariot races, were originally held in large open spaces with temporary seating; there is evidence that some munera were held in the Roman Forum, for example. As the games became more frequent and popular, there was need for a larger and more permanent structure. Although the Circus Maximus was often pressed into service because of its huge seating capacity, the Romans eventually designed a building specifically for this type of spectacle (called an amphitheatrum because the seating extended all the way around the oval or elliptical performance area, which was covered with sand, harena). Early amphitheaters, both in Rome and elsewhere, were built of wood, but stone amphitheaters proved to be much more durable; the oldest stone amphitheater, built in Pompeii in the first century CE and seating approximately 20,000, is still well preserved (see also this view through an archway on the upper level, a section of stone seats with staircase, and the exterior walls with stairway). Like Roman theaters, amphitheaters were freestanding; because they did not require natural hills, as Greek theaters did, they could be built anywhere.

Gladiators
Gladiators (named after the Roman sword called the gladius) were mostly unfree individuals (condemned criminals, prisoners of war, slaves). Some gladiators were volunteers (mostly freedmen or very low classes of freeborn men) who chose to take on the status of a slave for the monetary rewards or the fame and excitement. Anyone who became a gladiator was automatically infamis, beneath the law and by definition not a respectable citizen. A small number of upper-class men did compete in the arena (though this was explicitly prohibited by law), but they did not live with the other gladiators and constituted a special, esoteric form of entertainment (as did the extremely rare women who competed in the arena). All gladiators swore a solemn oath (sacramentum gladiatorium), similar to that sworn by the legionary but much more dire: “I will endure to be burned, to be bound, to be beaten, and to be killed by the sword” (uri, vinciri, verberari, ferroque necari, Petronius Satyricon 117). Paradoxically, this terrible oath gave a measure of volition and even honor to the gladiator. As Carlin Barton states, “The gladiator, by his oath, transforms what had originally been an involuntary act to a voluntary one, and so, at the very moment that he becomes a slave condemned to death, he becomes a free agent and a man with honor to uphold” (The Sorrows of the Ancient Romans: The Gladiator and the Monster [Princeton University Press, 1993] 15). Trained gladiators had the possibility of surviving and even thriving. Some gladiators did not fight more than two or three times a year, and the best of them became popular heroes (appearing often on graffiti, for example: “Thrax is the heart-throb of all the girls”). Skilled fighters might win a good deal of money and the wooden sword (rudis) that symbolized their freedom. Freed gladiators could continue to fight for money, but they often became trainers in the gladiatorial schools or free-lance bodyguards for the wealthy.Types of Gladiators: There were many categories of gladiators, who were distinguished by the kind of armor they wore, the weapons they used, and their style of fighting. Most gladiators stayed in one category, and matches usually involved two different categories of gladiator. The following examples will illustrate some of the different types of gladiators which modern scholars have identified:
  • Thracian: Wide-brimmed crested helmet with visor, high greaves on both legs, arm protector, very small shield, and short, curved sword (similar to Spartacus); the victorious gladiator in this mosaic is a Thracian.
  • Secutor: Egg-shaped helmet with round eye-holes, greave on one leg, arm protector, legionary-style shield and sword (scutum and gladius); see the small black helmet in the above image and the victorious gladiator in this mosaic. The secutor was called a “chaser,” probably because he was frequently paired with the retiarius, who used running as one of his tactics.
  • Retiarius (“net-and-trident” fighter): Arm protector (often topped with a high metal shoulder protector), large net, trident, small dagger, no helmet; the retiarius was the only type of gladiator whose head and face were uncovered. Since he wore practically no defensive armor, the retiarius was more mobile than most gladiators but was also more vulnerable to serious wounds. Looking at the retiarius in this mosaic, one has to ask, “Why is this man smiling?” because the secutor appears about to stab him.
  • Bestiarius: This was a special type of gladiator trained to handle and fight all sorts of animals. The bestiarii were the lowest ranking gladiators; they did not become as popular or individually well known as other types of gladiators. Although this relief depicts bestiarii wearing armor, most depictions show them without armor, equipped with whips or spears, wearing cloth or leather garments and leggings.
Training: The manager of a gladiatorial troupe was called a lanista; he provided lengthy and demanding training in schools (ludi) especially designed for this purpose and usually located near the great amphitheaters. Pompeii, for example, had both a small training area surrounded by gladiatorial barracks and a large one right next to the amphitheater. During the imperial period all the gladiatorial schools in Rome were under the direct control of the emperor. The largest of these schools, the Ludus Magnus, was located next to the Colosseum; it included a practice amphitheater whose partially excavated ruins can be seen today.

A Typical Day at the Arena: 
Gladiatorial games began with an elaborate procession that included the combatants and was led by the sponsor of the games, the editor; in Rome during the imperial period, this usually was the emperor, and in the provinces it was a high-ranking magistrate. The parade and subsequent events were often accompanied by music; the mosaic at right depicts a water organ and the curved horn (cornu). The morning's events might begin with mock fights such as this contest. These would be followed by animal displays, sometimes featuring trained animals that performed tricks, but more often staged as hunts (venationes) in which increasingly exotic animals were pitted against each other or hunted and killed by bestiarii (click here for more information about venationes). The lunch break was devoted to executions of criminals who had committed particularly heinous crimes—murder, arson, sacrilege (the Christians, for example, were considered to be guilty of sacrilege and treason, because they refused to participate in rites of the state religion or to acknowledge the divinity of the emperor). The public nature of the execution made it degrading as well as painful and was intended to serve as a deterrent to others. One form of execution in the arena was damnatio ad bestias, in which the condemned were cast into the arena with violent animals or were made to participate in “dramatic” reenactments of mythological tales in which the “stars” really died (as for example the myth of Dirce, killed by being tied to a bull). Criminals could also be forced to fight in the arena with no previous training; in such bouts death was a foregone conclusion, since the “victor” had to face further opponents until he died (such combatants were not, of course, professional gladiators). In extraordinary circumstances, criminals might be forced to stage an elaborate naval battle (naumachia). Although these were usually fought on lakes, some scholars think they might also have been staged in the Colosseum, as shown in this modern drawing. In the afternoon came the high point of the games—individual gladiatorial combats. These were usually matches between gladiators with different types of armor and fighting styles, refereed by a lanista. Although it is popularly believed that these bouts began with the gladiators saying “Those who are about to die salute you,” the only evidence for this phrase is only found in the description of a naumachia staged by Claudius using condemned criminals, where the men supposedly said “Ave, imperator; morituri te salutant” (Suetonius, Claudius 21.6). This was certainly not a typical gladiatorial combat and cannot be used as evidence for typical practice. There were, however, many rituals in the arena. When a gladiator had been wounded and wished to concede defeat, he would hold up an index finger, as clearly depicted on the Colchester vase and on the mosaic below. At this point the crowd would indicate with gestures whether they wished the defeated gladiator to be killed or spared. The popular belief (illustrated in “Pollice Verso,” an 1872 painting by Jean-Léon Gérôme; see this detail) is that “thumbs down” meant kill and “thumbs up” meant spare, but we have no visual evidence for this, and the written evidence states that pollicem vertere (“to turn the thumb”) meant kill and pollicem premere (“to press the thumb”) meant spare. This may, in fact, indicate that those who wanted the gladiator killed waved their thumbs in any direction, and those who wanted him spared kept their thumbs pressed against their hands (as illustrated in this relief; see especially detail of the hand). In any case, the sponsor of the games decided whether or not to give the defeated gladiator a reprieve (missio). If the gladiator was to be killed, he was expected to accept the final blow in a ritualized fashion, without crying out or flinching. Some scholars believe there was also a ritual for removing the bodies of dead gladiators, with a man dressed as Charon (ferryman of Hades) testing the body to make sure he was really dead and then a slave dragging the body with a hook through a gate called the Porta Libitinensis (Libitina was a death goddess), as depicted in this modern drawing
Source: VRoma Project